Distortion and Heating Galaxy Clusters by Supergiant Black Holes
Downloads
In the present work, the orbital speed and temperature of energetic particles and excited atoms at distances many times beyond the Schwarzschild radius have been determined precisely. The mass, radius, density, colour and thickness of an accretion disc of black holes, as well as the rotational speed, temperature, kinetic energy, and potential energy of particles in the accretion disc, may change rapidly due to the turbulent fabric of a black hole and the rapid change in the spinning speed of a singularity ball. The gravitational force and centripetal force are equalized to calculate the orbital speed of energetic particles. The orbital kinetic energy of particles at a distant point of a black hole is thermalized to measure the temperature of black hole particles. Wien's law is involved in the crucial calculation of the wavelength of cosmic radiation and the energetic particles of a black hole, typically accelerated proton particles at the external edge of a black hole. The mass, radius, and accretion disc colour of black holes are changeable. The planetary mass black hole has a tiny radius, huge density, and the hottest accretion disc of energetic particles orbiting it. Indeed, stellar mass black holes, supermassive black holes, and supergiant black holes have yellow, red, and whiter accretion discs with lower temperatures as compared to the blue and hottest accretion disc of tiny mass black holes, typically the Jupiter mass black holes, since collecting enough amount of mass from the surface of planets and stars during direct interaction or collision with them. The planetary mass black holes could be formed from a collapsed amount of mass in the heart of a black hole to a superparticle, and as superparticles escaped to space to give birth to newborn lower mass black holes. The massive black holes are formed from the collapse of a sufficient amount of mass and the death of stars, or grow rapidly by collecting additional mass from their surroundings or companion stars. The hydrostatic balance of a black hole and its singularity sphere enhanced the evolution and dynamics of the entire shapes of black holes.
Dakić, V.; Popov, S.B.; Turolla, R. Supernova explosions of runaway stars and young neutron stars above the Galactic plane. Astron. Astrophys. 2025, 701, A21, https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202555186.
Eldridge, J.J.; Mattila, S.; Smartt, S.J. Ruling out a massive asymptotic giant-branch star as the progenitor of supernova 2005cs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. Lett. 2007, 376, L52–L56, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3933.2007.00285.x.
Chen, K.-J.; Whalen, D.J.; Wollenberg, K.M.J.; Glover, S.C.O.; Klessen, R.S. How the First Stars Regulated Star Formation. II. Enrichment by Nearby Supernovae. Astrophys. J. 2017, 844, 111, https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/aa7b34.
Sadiq, Sabir. 2025. “Radiations Accumulation and Rapid Transition of Particles Inside the Black Holes”. Engineering And Technology Journal 10 (1):3526-40. https://doi.org/10.47191/etj/v10i01.10.
Greve, A.; Tarchi, A.; Hüttemeister, S.; de Grijs, R.; van der Hulst, J.M.; Garrington, S.T.; Neininger, N. A search for radio supernovae and supernova remnants in the region of NGC 1569's super star clusters. Astron. Astrophys. 2002, 381, 825–833, https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20011467.
Sadiq, Sabir. 2023. “Life Cycle of a Low Mass Stars”. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences 93 (1):60-82. https://asrjetsjournal.org/index.php/American_Scientific_Journal/article/view/8308.
Sabir Sadiq. (2024). ‘’Life Cycle of High Mass Star’’. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences, 97(1), 11–29. Retrieved from https://asrjetsjournal.org/index.php/American_Scientific_Journal/article/view/9124.
Takahashi, R. Black Hole Shadows of Charged Spinning Black Holes. Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 2005, 57, 273–277, https://doi.org/10.1093/pasj/57.2.273.
Burko, L.M. Structure of the Black Hole's Cauchy-Horizon Singularity. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1997, 79, 4958–4961, https://doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.79.4958.
Wald, R.M. The Thermodynamics of Black Holes. Living Rev. Relativ. 2001, 4, 1–44, https://doi.org/10.12942/lrr-2001-6.
Shankar, F. The demography of supermassive black holes: Growing monsters at the heart of galaxies. New Astron. Rev. 2009, 53, 57–77, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newar.2009.07.006.
Greene, Jenny E.. 2012. Low-mass black holes as the remnants of primordial black hole formation. Nature Communications 3: 1304. doi:10.1038/ncomms2314.
Reines, A.E.; Sivakoff, G.R.; Johnson, K.E.; Brogan, C.L. An actively accreting massive black hole in the dwarf starburst galaxy Henize 2-10. Nature 2011, 470, 66–68, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09724.
Kawasaki, M.; Kusenko, A.; Yanagida, T.T. Primordial seeds of supermassive black holes. Phys. Lett. B 2012, 711, 1–5, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physletb.2012.03.056.
Kelly, B.C.; Merloni, A. Mass Functions of Supermassive Black Holes across Cosmic Time. Adv. Astron. 2012, 2012, 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/970858.
Reines, A.; Greene, J.; Geha, M. Dwarf Galaxies with Optical Signatures of Accreting Massive Black Holes. Proc. Int. Astron. Union 2013, 9, 23–23, https://doi.org/10.1017/s1743921314003184.
Mee, Nicholas. 2019. Supermassive Black Holes., 151–158. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198831860.003.0020.
Belbruno, E.A. Two-body motion under the inverse square central force and equivalent geodesic flows. Celestial Mechanics 15, 467–476 (1977). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01228612.
Kholshevnikov K.V. and Vassiliev N.N. (2004). Natural metrics in the spaces of elliptic orbits. Celest. Mech. Dyn. Astr. 89(2): 119–125.
Cenadelli, D.; Potenza, M.; Zeni, M. Stellar temperatures by Wien’s law: Not so simple. Am. J. Phys. 2012, 80, 391–398, https://doi.org/10.1119/1.3699958.
Caditz, D.M. GENERALIZED CONTINUITY EQUATION SOLUTIONS FOR THE QSO LUMINOSITY FUNCTION. Astrophys. J. 2016, 821, 73, https://doi.org/10.3847/0004-637x/821/2/73.
Böhm-Vitense, Erika (1989). "Chapter 6. The luminosities of the stars". Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics: Volume 1, Basic Stellar Observations and Data. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–48. ISBN 978-0-521-34869-0.
Nieva, M.-F (2013). "Temperature, gravity, and bolometric correction scales for non-supergiant OB stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 550: A26. arXiv:1212.0928. Bibcode:2013A&A...550A..26N. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219677. S2CID 119275940.
Hopkins, Jeanne (1980). Glossary of Astronomy and Astrophysics (2nd ed.). The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-35171-1.
Morison, Ian (2013). Introduction to Astronomy and Cosmology. Wiley. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-118-68152-7.
Fisenko, A.I.; Ivashov, S.N. Determination of the True Temperature of Molybdenum and Luminous Flames from Generalized Wien’s Displacement and Stefan–Boltzmann’s Laws: Thermodynamics of Thermal Radiation. Int. J. Thermophys. 2009, 30, 1524–1535, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10765-009-0653-8.
Yue, X. DERIVATIONS OF WIEN'S LAW AND WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW. Phys. Eng. 2025, 35, 63–65, https://doi.org/10.26599/phys.2025.9320312.
Cenadelli, D.; Potenza, M.; Zeni, M. Stellar temperatures by Wien’s law: Not so simple. Am. J. Phys. 2012, 80, 391–398, https://doi.org/10.1119/1.3699958.
Das, R. Wavelength- and Frequency-Dependent Formulations of Wien’s Displacement Law. J. Chem. Educ. 2015, 92, 1130–1134, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b00116.
Rusin, S.P. Determination of true temperature of opaque materials via spectral distribution of thermal radiation intensity: application of Wien’s displacement law. Thermophys. Aeromechanics 2014, 21, 449–460, https://doi.org/10.1134/s0869864314040052.
Wang, J.; Merritt, D. Revised Rates of Stellar Disruption in Galactic Nuclei. Astrophys. J. 2004, 600, 149–161, https://doi.org/10.1086/379767.
Phinney, E. Manifestations of a Massive Black Hole in the Galactic Center. Symp. - Int. Astron. Union 1989, 136, 543–553, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0074180900187054.
Mouri, H.; Taniguchi, Y. Orbital Decay and Tidal Disruption of a Star Cluster: Analytical Calculation. Astrophys. J. 2003, 585, 250–255, https://doi.org/10.1086/345898.
Emsellem, E.; van de Ven, G. Formation of Central Massive Objects via Tidal Compression. Astrophys. J. 2008, 674, 653–659, https://doi.org/10.1086/524720.
Stone, N.C.; Küpper, A.H.; Ostriker, J.P. Formation of Massive Black Holes in Galactic Nuclei: Runaway Tidal Encounters. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 2017, https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stx097.
Woosley, S.E.; Sukhbold, T.; Janka, H.-T. The Birth Function for Black Holes and Neutron Stars in Close Binaries. Astrophys. J. 2020, 896, 56, https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab8cc1.
Shapiro, Stuart L.. 1986. The Birth of AGNs and Quasars via the Collapse of Dense Star Clusters to Supermassive Black Holes., 129–147. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-4562-3_9.
Good, M.R.R.; Ong, Y.C. Signatures of energy flux in particle production: a black hole birth cry and death gasp. J. High Energy Phys. 2015, 2015, 145, https://doi.org/10.1007/jhep07(2015)145.
I Dokuchaev, V. Birth and life of massive black holes. Sov. Phys. Uspekhi 1991, 34, 447–470, https://doi.org/10.1070/pu1991v034n06abeh002383.
Pfister, H.; Lupi, A.; Capelo, P.R.; Volonteri, M.; Bellovary, J.M.; Dotti, M. The birth of a supermassive black hole binary. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 2017, 471, 3646–3656, https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stx1853.
Kryukova, E.; DePorzio, N.; Moulton, T. Probing the Properties of Supermassive Black Holes. J. Stud. Res. 2022, 11, https://doi.org/10.47611/jsrhs.v11i1.2698.
Mayes, R.J.; Drinkwater, M.J.; Pfeffer, J.; Baumgardt, H. The contribution of supermassive black holes in stripped nuclei to the supermassive black hole population of UCDs and galaxy clusters. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 2023, 527, 4643–4656, https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stad3428.
Merritt, David. 2006. Dynamics of galaxy cores and supermassive black holes. Reports on Progress in Physics 69: R01. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/69/9/r01.
Bailyn, Charles D.. 2014. Supermassive Black Holes., . doi:10.23943/princeton/9780691148823.003.0005.
Sadiq, Sabir. 2024. “Singularity Sphere in The Heart of a Black Hole”. Transactions on Engineering and Computing Sciences 12 (3):46-63. https://doi.org/10.14738/tecs.123.16742.
Harrison, C.M. Impact of supermassive black hole growth on star formation. Nat. Astron. 2017, 1, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-017-0165.
Mhatre, A.; Powell, M.C.; Yuan, S.; Allen, S.W.; Caglar, T.; Koss, M.; del Moral-Castro, I.; Oh, K.; Peca, A.; Ricci, C.; et al. Active galactic nuclei with massive black holes have closer galactic neighbors. Astron. Astrophys. 2025, 701, A45, https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202555295.
Colloms, S.; Doctor, Z.; Berry, C.P.L. Can Big Black Holes Merge with the Smallest Black Holes?. Astrophys. J. 2025, 995, 123, https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ae1f09.
Gaete, B.; Schleicher, D.R.G.; Lupi, A.; Reinoso, B.; Fellhauer, M.; Vergara, M.C. Supermassive black hole formation via collisions in black hole clusters. Astron. Astrophys. 2024, 690, A378, https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202450770.
Leonardo Giani, Oliver F. Piattella and Alexander Yu. Kamenshchik. Bianchi IX gravitational collapse of matter inhomogeneities. JCAP03(2022)028. DOI 10.1088/1475-7516/2022/03/028.
Shao, Y.; Li, X.-D. Population Synthesis of Black Hole Binaries with Compact Star Companions. Astrophys. J. 2021, 920, 81, https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ac173e.
Green, M.J.; Ziv, Y.; Rix, H.-W.; Maoz, D.; Hamoudy, I.; Mazeh, T.; Faigler, S.; Lam, M.C.; El-Badry, K.; Hume, G.; et al. An upper limit on the frequency of short-period black hole companions to Sun-like stars. Astron. Astrophys. 2025, 695, A210, https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202453271.
YanLi(李彦); ErlinQiao(乔二林); Rong-FengShen(申荣锋) X-ray constraint for the unseen companion of V723 Mon: it is a mass-gap black hole rather than binary neutron stars. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 2022, 514, 935–942, https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stac1394.
Shibata, Masaru, Thomas W. Baumgarte, and Stuart L. Shapiro. 1999. Hydrodynamic Simulations of Coalescing Binary Stars: Stability Against Gravitational Collapse., 277–280. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-4780-4_87.
Liu, J.; Zhang, H.; Howard, A.W.; Bai, Z.; Lu, Y.; Soria, R.; Justham, S.; Li, X.; Zheng, Z.; Wang, T.; et al. A wide star–black-hole binary system from radial-velocity measurements. Nature 2019, 575, 618–621, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1766-2.
Joyce, M.; Labini, F.S. Luminosity Density Estimation from Redshift Surveys and the Mass Density of the Universe. Astrophys. J. 2001, 554, L1–L4, https://doi.org/10.1086/320907.
Haug, E.G.; Gianfranco, S. The Planck Mass Density Radius of the Universe. Eur. J. Appl. Phys. 2022, 4, 40–47, https://doi.org/10.24018/ejphysics.2022.4.2.165.
Marov, Mikhail Ya. (2015). "The Structure of the Universe". The Fundamentals of Modern Astrophysics. pp. 279–294. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8730-2_10. ISBN 978-1-4614-8729-6.
Sabir, S. (2025). Singularity Bombardment by Superparticles. Engineering and technology journal, 10(08), 6377–6390. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16910845.
Sadiq, S. Hydrostatic Balance of Stars and Black Hole Singularity. Preprints 2025, 2025091636. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202509.1636.v1.
Williamson, R.; Benson, B. A.; High, F. W.; Vanderlinde, K.; Ade, P. A. R.; Aird, K. A.; Andersson, K.; Armstrong, R.; Ashby, M. L. N.; Bautz, M.; Bazin, G.; Bertin, E.; Bleem, L. E.; Bonamente, M.; Brodwin, M. (10 September 2011). "An SZ-selected sample of the most massive galaxy clusters in the 2500-square-degree South Pole Telescope survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 738 (2): 139. arXiv:1101.1290. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/738/2/139. ISSN 0004-637X.
Brockamp, M.; Baumgardt, H.; Britzen, S.; Zensus, A. (January 2016). "Unveiling Gargantua: A new search strategy for the most massive central cluster black holes". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 585: A153. arXiv:1509.04782. Bibcode:2016A&A...585A.153B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201526873. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 54641547.
Carr, Bernard; et al. (2 January 2021). "Constraints on stupendously large black holes". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 501 (2): 2029–2043. arXiv:2008.08077. Bibcode:2021MNRAS.501.2029C. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3651. ISSN 0035-8711.
Somboonpanyakul, T.; McDonald, M.; Gaspari, M.; Stalder, B.; Stark, A.A. The Clusters Hiding in Plain Sight (CHiPS) Survey: Complete Sample of Extreme BCG Clusters. Astrophys. J. 2021, 910, 60, https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/abe1bc.
Sadiq, S. (2026). Distortion and Heating an Accretion Disc of a Black Hole. Engineering And Technology Journal, 11(01), 8680–8696. https://doi.org/10.47191/etj/v11i01.33.
Sadiq, S. (2026). Gravitational Lensing and Tidal Effects of a Planetary Mass Black Hole. Preprints. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202605.1288.v1.
Sadiq, S. (2026). Angular Momentum and Surface Temperature of the Singularity and Superparticles. Engineering And Technology Journal, 11(06), 10514–10530. https://doi.org/10.47191/etj/v11i06.27.
Sadiq, S. Plasma Jets and Stellar Lightnings Involved in Coronal Heating Dynamics. Preprints 2026, 2026060563. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202606.0563.v1.
Sadiq, Sabir. 2026. “Quantum Gravity Balance Radius”. Engineering And Technology Journal 11 (07):10837-56. https://doi.org/10.47191/etj/v11i07.06.
STAR Collaboration. Temperature measurement of Quark-Gluon plasma at different stages. Nat Commun 16, 9098 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-63216-5.
Zhao, Y.; Liu, J.; Cheng, X.; Wang, C.; Hu, Z. Experimental Review of the Quarkonium Physics at the LHC. Symmetry 2025, 17, 1521. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17091521.
