Precision Agriculture for Smallholder Oil Palm Plantations: Barriers, Enabling Conditions, and Policy Pathways for Inclusive Digital Transformation
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Precision agriculture has increasingly been promoted as a pathway for improving productivity, input efficiency, environmental performance, and data-driven decision-making in perennial crop systems. In oil palm plantations, technologies such as remote sensing, unmanned aerial vehicles, machine learning, variable-rate fertilisation, digital farm records, and decision-support systems offer significant opportunities for yield improvement and sustainable intensification. However, the implementation of precision agriculture in smallholder-owned oil palm plantations remains constrained by multidimensional barriers. This article presents a qualitative literature review of recent scholarly works published mainly from 2020 onward to synthesise the technological, economic, institutional, infrastructural, agronomic, social, and policy-related challenges that shape smallholder adoption. The review argues that precision agriculture should not be understood merely as a technological package but as a socio-technical transformation requiring complementary assets, collective organization, trusted data governance, accessible finance, digital literacy, and supportive public policy. The findings indicate that individual smallholders often face high entry costs, limited plot-level data, fragmented landholdings, weak bargaining power, poor digital connectivity, and insufficient advisory services. Therefore, inclusive implementation requires phased adoption, cooperative-based service models, public–private–community partnerships, and integration with certification, traceability, and sustainable palm oil policy frameworks. The article concludes that smallholder precision agriculture can contribute to productivity, sustainability, and rural welfare only when technological innovation is embedded within institutional and policy ecosystems that reduce exclusion and distribute benefits fairly
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